les figures de l'afrique  
 
un heros africain  
 
 
 
 
l'histoire de lumumba 
 
 
 
Émeris Lumumba b de Patrice. Juillet 2, 1925, Onalua, Congo belge [ maintenant Congo (Kinshasa) ] d. janvier 1961, province de Katanga Chef nationaliste africain, le premier premier ministre de la République démocratique du Congo (Juin-Septembre 1960). Forcé hors du bureau pendant une crise politique, il a été assassiné peu de temps plus tard. Lumumba a été soutenu dans le village d'Onalua dans la province de Kasai, Congo belge. Il était un membre de la petite tribu de Batetela, un fait qui devait devenir significatif dans sa vie politique postérieure. Ses deux rivaux, Moise Tshombe, qui ont mené le point d'interruption de la province de Katanga, et Joseph principaux Kasavubu, qui plus tard est devenu le président de nation's, tous les deux sont venus de grandes, puissantes tribus dont ils ont dérivé leur appui principal, donnant à leurs mouvements politiques un caractère régional. En revanche, le mouvement de Lumumba's a souligné sa toute-Congolese nature. Après être allé à une école protestante de mission, Lumumba est allé fonctionner dans le Kindu-Port-Empain, où il est devenu actif dans le club des évolués (Africains instruits). Il a commencé à écrire des essais et des poésies pour des journaux de Congolese. Lumumba après déplacé à Léopoldville (maintenant Kinshasa) pour aller bien à un commis postal et a continué pour aller bien à un comptable dans la poste dans Stanleyville (maintenant Kisangani). Là il a continué à contribuer à la pression de Congolese. En 1955 Lumumba est allé bien au président régional purement d'un syndicat de Congolese des employés de gouvernement qui n'était pas filiale, de même que d'autres syndicats, à l'une ou l'autre des deux fédérations belges de syndicat (socialiste et catholique). Il est également devenu actif en parti libéral belge au Congo. Bien que conservateur de beaucoup de manières, la partie n'a pas été liée à non plus des fédérations de syndicat, qui étaient hostiles à elle. En 1956 Lumumba a été invité avec d'autres pour faire une excursion d'étude de la Belgique sous les auspices du ministre des colonies. Sur son retour il a été arrêté sur une charge de détournement de la poste. Il a été condamné et condamné un an après, après de diverses réductions de phrase, à 12 months' ; emprisonnement et une amende. Quand Lumumba est sorti de la prison, il s'est développé bien plus actif dans la politique. En octobre 1958 il a fondé le mouvement national de Congolese (national Congolais de Mouvement ; MNC), la première partie politique dans tout le pays de Congolese. En décembre il a suivi la première conférence Tout-Africaine de People's à Accra, Ghana, où il a rencontré des nationalistes de à travers le continent africain et a été fait à un membre de l'organisation permanente installée par la conférence. Ses perspectives et terminologie, inspirées par des buts d'casserole-Pan-African, ont maintenant pris sur la teneur du nationalisme militant. Dans 1959 le gouvernement de Belge a annoncé un programme prévu pour mener en cinq ans à l'indépendance, commençant par des élections locales en décembre 1959. Les nationalistes ont considéré ce programme comme un arrangement pour installer des marionnettes avant l'indépendance et ont annoncé un boycott des élections. Les autorités belges ont répondu avec la répression. Octobre 30 il y avait un désaccord dans Stanleyville qui a eu comme conséquence les 30 décès. Lumumba a été emprisonné sur une charge de l'incitation à s'ameuter. Le MNC a décidé de décaler la tactique, a écrit les élections, et a gagné une victoire rapide dans Stanleyville (90 pour cent des voix). En janvier 1960 le gouvernement belge a assemblé une conférence de table ronde à Bruxelles de toutes les parties de Congolese pour discuter le changement politique, mais le MNC refusé pour participer sans Lumumba. Lumumba a été sur quoi libéré de la prison et volé à Bruxelles. La conférence était d'accord une date pour l'indépendance, juin 30, avec des élections nationales en mai. Bien qu'il ait y eu une multiplicité de parties, le MNC a sorti loin en avant dans les élections, et Lumumba a émergé en tant que principal politicien nationaliste du Congo. Les manoeuvres pour empêcher son acceptation d'autorité ont échoué, et il a été invité à former le premier gouvernement, qu'il a réussi à faire juin 23, 1960. Quelques jours après l'indépendance, quelques unités de l'armée se sont rebellées, en grande partie en raison des objections à leur commandant belge. Dans la confusion, la province minerai-riche de Katanga a proclamé le secession. La Belgique introduite les troupes, pour protéger en apparence les ressortissants belges dans le désordre. Mais les troupes belges ont débarqué principalement dans Katanga, où elles ont soutenu le régime de secessionist de Moise Tshombe. Le Congo a fait appel aux Nations Unies pour expulser les Belges et pour les aider à reconstituer l'ordre interne. En tant que premier ministre, Lumumba a fait quel peu il pourrait redresser la situation. Son armée était un instrument incertain de puissance, sa administration civile non formée et non essayée ; les forces des Nations Unies (dont la présence il avait demandée) étaient condescendantes et autoritaires, et les alliances politiques sous-tendantes son régime très précaire. Les troupes belges n'ont pas évacué, et le secession de Katanga a continué. Puisque les forces des Nations Unies refusées pour aider à supprimer la révolte de Katangese, Lumumba ont fait appel à l'Soviétique-union pour des avions l'aide en transportant ses troupes à Katanga. Il a demandé les Etats africains indépendants pour se réunir dans Léopoldville en août pour unir leurs efforts derrière lui. Ses mouvements ont alarmé beaucoup, en particulier les puissances occidentales et les défenseurs du Président Kasavubu, qui ont suivi un cours modéré du gouvernement de coalition et ont favorisé de l'autonomie locale dans les provinces. Sur le Président septembre de 5 Kasavubu a écarté Lumumba. Les légalités du mouvement ont été immédiatement contestées par Lumumba. Il y avait ainsi deux groupes prétendant maintenant être le gouvernement central légal. Septembre 14 la puissance a été saisie par le colonel Joseph Mobutu (président du Chef d'armée de Congolese du Zaïre comme Mobutu Sese Seko), qui plus tard a conclu un accord de fonctionnement avec Kasavubu. En octobre l'Assemblée générale des Nations Unies a identifié les qualifications du gouvernement de Kasavubu's. Les Etats africains indépendants se sont dédoublés brusquement au-dessus de l'issue. En novembre Lumumba a cherché à voyager de Leopoldville, où les Nations Unies lui avaient fournies la protection provisory, à Stanleyville, où ses défenseurs ont eu la commande. Avec la complicité active des sources d'intelligence étrangère, Joseph Mobutu a envoyé ses soldats après Lumumba. Il a été attrapé après que plusieurs jours de poursuite et dépensé pendant trois mois en prison, alors que ses adversaires essayaient en vain de consolider leur puissance. En conclusion, conscient du fait qu'un Lumumba emprisonné était plus dangereux qu'un premier ministre mort, il a été livré janvier 17, 1961, au régime de secessionist de Katanga, où il a été exécuté la même nuit de son arrivée, avec ses camarades Mpolo et Okito. Sa mort a causé un scandale national dans le monde entier, et, rétrospectivement, Mobutu l'a proclamé un "national hero." ; Les raisons pour laquelle Lumumba a provoqué tant d'émotion intense ne sont pas immédiatement évidentes. Son point de vue n'était pas exceptionnel. Il était pour le Congo unitaire et contre la division du pays le long des lignes tribales ou régionales. Comme beaucoup d'autres chefs africains, il a soutenu la casserole-Africanism et la libération des territoires coloniaux. Il a proclamé son régime un de neutralism "positive, " ; ce qu'il a défini comme retour aux valeurs et au rejet africains de n'importe quelle idéologie importée, y compris cela de l'Soviétique-union. Lumumba était, cependant, un homme de caractère fort qui a eu l'intention de poursuivre ses politiques, indépendamment des ennemis qu'il a faits dans son pays ou à l'étranger. Le Congo, en outre, était un secteur principal en termes de géopolitique de l'Afrique, et en raison de sa richesse, de sa taille, et de son contiguity vers l'Afrique australe blanc-dominée, les adversaires de Lumumba's ont eu la raison de craindre les conséquences d'un radical ou radicalized le régime du Congo. D'ailleurs, dans le contexte de la guerre froide, le soutien du Soviétique Union's de Lumumba est apparu alors comme menace à beaucoup dans l'ouest. [ édité d'encyclopédie Britannica avec le paragraphe additionnel en italiques de picotin de Raoul de réalisateur de film 
mcfreud 
 
 
 
 
 
Profile of Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela 
 
 
Nelson Mandela's greatest pleasure, his most private moment, is watching the sun set with the music of Handel or Tchaikovsky playing.  
 
Locked up in his cell during daylight hours, deprived of music, both these simple pleasures were denied him for decades. With his fellow prisoners, concerts were organised when possible, particularly at Christmas time, where they would sing. Nelson Mandela finds music very uplifting, and takes a keen interest not only in European classical music but also in African choral music and the many talents in South African music. But one voice stands out above all - that of Paul Robeson, whom he describes as our hero.  
 
The years in jail reinforced habits that were already entrenched: the disciplined eating regime of an athlete began in the 1940s, as did the early morning exercise. Still today Nelson Mandela is up by 4.30am, irrespective of how late he has worked the previous evening. By 5am he has begun his exercise routine that lasts at least an hour. Breakfast is by 6.30, when the days newspapers are read. The day s work has begun.  
 
With a standard working day of at least 12 hours, time management is critical and Nelson Mandela is extremely impatient with unpunctuality, regarding it as insulting to those you are dealing with.  
 
When speaking of the extensive travelling he has undertaken since his release from prison, Nelson Mandela says: I was helped when preparing for my release by the biography of Pandit Nehru, who wrote of what happens when you leave jail. My daughter Zinzi says that she grew up without a father, who, when he returned, became a father of the nation. This has placed a great responsibility of my shoulders. And wherever I travel, I immediately begin to miss the familiar - the mine dumps, the colour and smell that is uniquely South African, and, above all, the people. I do not like to be away for any length of time. For me, there is no place like home.  
 
Mandela accepted the Nobel Peace Prize as an accolade to all people who have worked for peace and stood against racism. It was as much an award to his person as it was to the ANC and all South Africa s people. In particular, he regards it as a tribute to the people of Norway who stood against apartheid while many in the world were silent.  
 
We know it was Norway that provided resources for farming; thereby enabling us to grow food; resources for education and vocational training and the provision of accommodation over the years in exile. The reward for all this sacrifice will be the attainment of freedom and democracy in South Africa, in an open society which respects the rights of all individuals. That goal is now in sight, and we have to thank the people and governments of Norway and Sweden for the tremendous role they played.  
 
Personal Tastes  
 
Breakfast of plain porridge, with fresh fruit and fresh milk.  
A favourite is the traditionally prepared meat of a freshly slaughtered sheep, and the delicacy Amarhewu (fermented corn-meal).  
Biographical Details 
Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was born in a village near Umtata in the Transkei on the 18 July 1918. His father was the principal councillor to the Acting Paramount Chief of Thembuland. After his father s death, the young Rolihlahla became the Paramount Chief s ward to be groomed to assume high office. However, influenced by the cases that came before the Chief s court, he determined to become a lawyer. Hearing the elders stories of his ancestors valour during the wars of resistance in defence of their fatherland, he dreamed also of making his own contribution to the freedom struggle of his people.  
 
After receiving a primary education at a local mission school, Nelson Mandela was sent to Healdtown, a Wesleyan secondary school of some repute where he matriculated. He then enrolled at the University College of Fort Hare for the Bachelor of Arts Degree where he was elected onto the Student's Representative Council. He was suspended from college for joining in a protest boycott. He went to Johannesburg where he completed his BA by correspondence, took articles of clerkship and commenced study for his LLB. He entered politics in earnest while studying in Johannesburg by joining the African National Congress in 1942.  
 
At the height of the Second World War a small group of young Africans, members of the African National Congress, banded together under the leadership of Anton Lembede. Among them were William Nkomo, Walter Sisulu, Oliver R. Tambo, Ashby P. Mda and Nelson Mandela. Starting out with 60 members, all of whom were residing around the Witwatersrand, these young people set themselves the formidable task of transforming the ANC into a mass movement, deriving its strength and motivation from the unlettered millions of working people in the towns and countryside, the peasants in the rural areas and the professionals.  
 
Their chief contention was that the political tactics of the old guard' leadership of the ANC, reared in the tradition of constitutionalism and polite petitioning of the government of the day, were proving inadequate to the tasks of national emancipation. In opposition to the old guard', Lembede and his colleagues espoused a radical African Nationalism grounded in the principle of national self-determination. In September 1944 they came together to found the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL).  
 
Mandela soon impressed his peers by his disciplined work and consistent effort and was elected to the Secretaryship of the Youth League in 1947. By painstaking work, campaigning at the grassroots and through its mouthpiece Inyaniso' (Truth) the ANCYL was able to canvass support for its policies amongst the ANC membership. At the 1945 annual conference of the ANC, two of the League s leaders, Anton Lembede and Ashby Mda, were elected onto the National Executive Committee (NEC). Two years later another Youth League leader, Oliver R Tambo became a member of the NEC.  
 
Spurred on by the victory of the National Party which won the 1948 all-White elections on the platform of Apartheid, at the 1949 annual conference, the Programme of Action, inspired by the Youth League, which advocated the weapons of boycott, strike, civil disobedience and non-co-operation was accepted as official ANC policy.  
 
The Programme of Action had been drawn up by a sub-committee of the ANCYL composed of David Bopape, Ashby Mda, Nelson Mandela, James Njongwe, Walter Sisulu and Oliver Tambo. To ensure its implementation the membership replaced older leaders with a number of younger men. Walter Sisulu, a founding member of the Youth League was elected Secretary-General. The conservative Dr A.B. Xuma lost the presidency to Dr J.S. Moroka, a man with a reputation for greater militancy. The following year, 1950, Mandela himself was elected to the NEC at national conference.  
 
The ANCYL programme aimed at the attainment of full citizenship, direct parliamentary representation for all South Africans. In policy documents of which Mandela was an important co-author, the ANCYL paid special attention to the redistribution of the land, trade union rights, education and culture. The ANCYL aspired to free and compulsory education for all children, as well as mass education for adults.  
 
When the ANC launched its Campaign for the Defiance of Unjust Laws in 1952, Mandela was elected National Volunteer-in-Chief. The Defiance Campaign was conceived as a mass civil disobedience campaign that would snowball from a core of selected volunteers to involved more and more ordinary people, culminating in mass defiance. Fulfilling his responsibility as Volunteer-in-Chief, Mandela travelled the country organising resistance to discriminatory legislation. Charged and brought to trial for his role in the campaign, the court found that Mandela and his co-accused had consistently advised their followers to adopt a peaceful course of action and to avoid all violence.  
 
For his part in the Defiance Campaign, Mandela was convicted of contravening the Suppression of Communism Act and given a suspended prison sentence. Shortly after the campaign ended, he was also prohibited from attending gatherings and confined to Johannesburg for six months.  
 
During this period of restrictions, Mandela wrote the attorneys admission examination and was admitted to the profession. He opened a practice in Johannesburg, in partnership with Oliver Tambo. In recognition of his outstanding contribution during the Defiance Campaign Mandela had been elected to the presidency of both the Youth League and the Transvaal region of the ANC at the end of 1952, he thus became a deputy president of the ANC itself.  
 
Of their law practice, Oliver Tambo, ANC National Chairman at the time of his death in April 1993, has written:  
 
To reach our desks each morning Nelson and I ran the gauntlet of patient queues of people overflowing from the chairs in the waiting room into the corridors... To be landless (in South Africa) can be a crime, and weekly we interviewed the delegations of peasants who came to tell us how many generations their families had worked a little piece of land from which they were now being ejected... To live in the wrong area can be a crime... Our buff office files carried thousands of these stories and if, when we started our law partnership, we had not been rebels against apartheid, our experiences in our offices would have remedied the deficiency. We had risen to professional status in our community, but every case in court, every visit to the prisons to interview clients, reminded us of the humiliation and suffering burning into our people.  
 
Nor did their professional status earn Mandela and Tambo any personal immunity from the brutal apartheid laws. They fell foul of the land segregation legislation, and the authorities demanded that they move their practice from the city to the back of beyond, as Mandela later put it, miles away from where clients could reach us during working hours. This was tantamount to asking us to abandon our legal practice, to give up the legal service of our people... No attorney worth his salt would easily agree to do that, said Mandela and the partnership resolved to defy the law.  
 
Nor was the government alone in trying to frustrate Mandela s legal practice. On the grounds of his conviction under the Suppression of Communism Act, the Transvaal Law Society petitioned the Supreme Court to strike him off the roll of attorneys. The petition was refused with Mr Justice Ramsbottom finding that Mandela had been moved by a desire to serve his black fellow citizens and nothing he had done showed him to be unworthy to remain in the ranks of an honourable profession.  
 
In 1952 Nelson Mandela was given the responsibility to prepare an organisational plan that would enable the leadership of the movement to maintain dynamic contact with its membership without recourse to public meetings. The objective was to prepare for the contingency of proscription by building up powerful local and regional branches to whom power could be devolved. This was the M-Plan, named after him.  
 
During the early fifties Mandela played an important part in leading the resistance to the Western Areas removals and to the introduction of Bantu Education. He also played a significant role in popularising the Freedom Charter, adopted by the Congress of the People in 1955.  
 
In the late fifties, Mandela s attention turned to the struggles against the exploitation of labour, the pass laws, the nascent Bantustan policy, and the segregation of the open universities. Mandela arrived at the conclusion very early on that the Bantustan policy was a political swindle and an economic absurdity. He predicted, with dismal prescience, that ahead there lay a grim programme of mass evictions, political persecutions, and police terror. On the segregation of the universities, Mandela observed that the friendship and inter-racial harmony that is forged through the admixture and association of various racial groups at the mixed universities constitute a direct threat to the policy of apartheid and baasskap, and that it was to remove that threat that the open universities were being closed to black students.  
 
During the whole of the fifties, Mandela was the victim of various forms of repression. He was banned, arrested and imprisoned. For much of the latter half of the decade, he was one of the accused in the mammoth Treason Trial, at great cost to his legal practice and his political work. After the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960, the ANC was outlawed, and Mandela, still on trial, was detained.  
 
The Treason Trial collapsed in 1961 as South Africa was being steered towards the adoption of the republic constitution. With the ANC now illegal the leadership picked up the threads from its underground headquarters. Nelson Mandela emerged at this time as the leading figure in this new phase of struggle. Under the ANC's inspiration, 1,400 delegates came together at an All-in African Conference in Pietermaritzburg during March 1961. Mandela was the keynote speaker. In an electrifying address he challenged the apartheid regime to convene a national convention, representative of all South Africans to thrash out a new constitution based on democratic principles. Failure to comply, he warned, would compel the majority (Blacks) to observe the forthcoming inauguration of the Republic with a mass general strike. He immediately went underground to lead the campaign. Although fewer answered the call than Mandela had hoped, it attracted considerable support throughout the country. The government responded with the largest military mobilisation since the war, and the Republic was born in an atmosphere of fear and apprehension.  
 
Forced to live apart from his family, moving from place to place to evade detection by the government s ubiquitous informers and police spies, Mandela had to adopt a number of disguises. Sometimes dressed as a common labourer, at other times as a chauffeur, his successful evasion of the police earned him the title of the Black Pimpernel. It was during this time that he, together with other leaders of the ANC constituted a new specialised section of the liberation movement, Umkhonto we Sizwe, as an armed nucleus with a view to preparing for armed struggle. At the Rivonia trial, Mandela explained : "At the beginning of June 1961, after long and anxious assessment of the South African situation, I and some colleagues came to the conclusion that as violence in this country was inevitable, it would be wrong and unrealistic for African leaders to continue preaching peace and non-violence at a time when the government met our peaceful demands with force.  
 
It was only when all else had failed, when all channels of peaceful protest had been barred to us, that the decision was made to embark on violent forms of political struggle, and to form Umkhonto we Sizwe...the Government had left us no other choice."  
 
In 1961 Umkhonto we Sizwe was formed, with Mandela as its commander-in-chief. In 1962 Mandela left the country unlawfully and travelled abroad for several months. In Ethiopia he addressed the Conference of the Pan African Freedom Movement of East and Central Africa, and was warmly received by senior political leaders in several countries. During this trip Mandela, anticipating an intensification of the armed struggle, began to arrange guerrilla training for members of Umkhonto we Sizwe.  
 
Not long after his return to South Africa Mandela was arrested and charged with illegal exit from the country, and incitement to strike.  
 
Since he considered the prosecution a trial of the aspirations of the African people, Mandela decided to conduct his own defence. He applied for the recusal of the magistrate, on the ground that in such a prosecution a judiciary controlled entirely by whites was an interested party and therefore could not be impartial, and on the ground that he owed no duty to obey the laws of a white parliament, in which he was not represented.  
 
Mandela prefaced this challenge with the affirmation: I detest racialism, because I regard it as a barbaric thing, whether it comes from a black man or a white man.  
 
Mandela was convicted and sentenced to five years imprisonment. While serving his sentence he was charged, in the Rivonia Trial, with sabotage. Mandela s statements in court during these trials are classics in the history of the resistance to apartheid, and they have been an inspiration to all who have opposed it. His statement from the dock in the Rivonia Trial ends with these words:  
 
I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.  
 
Mandela was sentenced to life imprisonment and started his prison years in the notorious Robben Island Prison, a maximum security prison on a small island 7Km off the coast near Cape Town. In April 1984 he was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison in Cape Town and in December 1988 he was moved the Victor Verster Prison near Paarl from where he was eventually released. While in prison, Mandela flatly rejected offers made by his jailers for remission of sentence in exchange for accepting the bantustan policy by recognising the independence of the Transkei and agreeing to settle there. Again in the 'eighties Mandela rejected an offer of release on condition that he renounce violence. Prisoners cannot enter into contracts. Only free men can negotiate, he said.  
Click image for map 
 
 
Released on 11 February 1990, Mandela plunged wholeheartedly into his life's work, striving to attain the goals he and others had set out almost four decades earlier. In 1991, at the first national conference of the ANC held inside South Africa after being banned for decades, Nelson Mandela was elected President of the ANC while his lifelong friend and colleague, Oliver Tambo, became the organisation's National Chairperson.  
 
Nelson Mandela has never wavered in his devotion to democracy, equality and learning. Despite terrible provocation, he has never answered racism with racism. His life has been an inspiration, in South Africa and throughout the world, to all who are oppressed and deprived, to all who are opposed to oppression and deprivation.  
 
In a life that symbolises the triumph of the human spirit over man s inhumanity to man, Nelson Mandela accepted the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize on behalf of all South Africans who suffered and sacrificed so much to bring peace to our land.  
 
 
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A Brief Biography 
Mandela's words, "The struggle is my life," are not to be taken lightly.  
 
Nelson Mandela personifies struggle. He is still leading the fight against apartheid with extraordinary vigour and resilience after spending nearly three decades of his life behind bars. He has sacrificed his private life and his youth for his people, and remains South Africa's best known and loved hero.  
 
Mandela has held numerous positions in the ANC: ANCYL secretary (1948); ANCYL president (1950); ANC Transvaal president (1952); deputy national president (1952) and ANC president (1991).  
 
He was born at Qunu, near Umtata on 18 July 1918.  
 
His father, Henry Mgadla Mandela, was chief councillor to Thembuland's acting paramount chief David Dalindyebo. When his father died, Mandela became the chief's ward and was groomed for the chieftainship.  
 
Mandela matriculated at Healdtown Methodist Boarding School and then started a BA degree at Fort Hare. As an SRC member he participated in a student strike and was expelled, along with the late Oliver Tambo, in 1940. He completed his degree by correspondence from Johannesburg, did articles of clerkship and enrolled for an LLB at the University of the Witwatersrand.  
 
In 1944 he helped found the ANC Youth League, whose Programme of Action was adopted by the ANC in 1949.  
 
Mandela was elected national volunteer-in-chief of the 1952 Defiance Campaign. He travelled the country organising resistance to discriminatory legislation.  
 
He was given a suspended sentence for his part in the campaign. Shortly afterwards a banning order confined him to Johannesburg for six months. During this period he formulated the "M Plan", in terms of which ANC branches were broken down into underground cells.  
 
By 1952 Mandela and Tambo had opened the first black legal firm in the country, and Mandela was both Transvaal president of the ANC and deputy national president.  
 
A petition by the Transvaal Law Society to strike Mandela off the roll of attorneys was refused by the Supreme Court.  
 
In the 'fifties, after being forced through constant bannings to resign officially from the ANC, Mandela analysed the Bantustan policy as a political swindle. He predicted mass removals, political persecutions and police terror.  
 
For the second half of the 'fifties, he was one of the accused in the Treason Trial. With Duma Nokwe, he conducted the defence.  
 
When the ANC was banned after the Sharpeville massacre in 1960, he was detained until 1961 when he went underground to lead a campaign for a new national convention.  
 
Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), the military wing of the ANC, was born the same year. Under his leadership it launched a campaign of sabotage against government and economic installations.  
 
In 1962 Mandela left the country for military training in Algeria and to arrange training for other MK members.  
 
On his return he was arrested for leaving the country illegally and for incitement to strike. He conducted his own defence. He was convicted and jailed for five years in November 1962. While serving his sentence, he was charged, in the Rivonia trial, with sabotage and sentenced to life imprisonment.  
 
A decade before being imprisoned, Mandela had spoken out against the introduction of Bantu Education, recommending that community activists "make every home, every shack or rickety structure a centre of learning".  
 
Robben Island, where he was imprisoned, became a centre for learning, and Mandela was a central figure in the organised political education classes.  
 
In prison Mandela never compromised his political principles and was always a source of strength for the other prisoners.  
 
During the 'seventies he refused the offer of a remission of sentence if he recognised Transkei and settled there.  
 
In the 'eighties he again rejected PW Botha's offer of freedom if he renounced violence.  
 
It is significant that shortly after his release on Sunday 11 February 1990, Mandela and his delegation agreed to the suspension of armed struggle.  
 
Mandela has honorary degrees from more than 50 international universities and is chancellor of the University of the North.  
 
He was inaugurated as the first democratically elected State President of South Africa on 10 May 1994 - June 1999 
 
Nelson Mandela retired from Public life in June 1999. He currently resides in his birth place - Qunu, Transkei.